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. Project management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the of a to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria at the specified time. A is a temporary endeavor designed to produce a unique product, service or result with a defined beginning and end (usually time-constrained, and often constrained by funding or staffing) undertaken to meet unique goals and objectives, typically to bring about beneficial change or added value. The temporary nature of projects stands in contrast with, which are repetitive, permanent, or semi-permanent functional activities to produce products or services. In practice, the of such distinct production approaches requires the development of distinct technical skills and management strategies.
The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals within the given constraints. This information is usually described in project documentation, created at the beginning of the development process. The primary constraints are, time, and. The secondary — and more ambitious — challenge is to the of necessary inputs and apply them to meet pre-defined objectives. The object of project management is to produce a complete project which complies with the client's objectives.
In many cases the object of project management is also to shape or reform the client's brief in order to feasibly be able to address the client's objectives. Once the client's objectives are clearly established they should impact on all decisions made by other people involved in the project - project managers, designers, contractors, sub-contractors, etc. If the project management objectives are ill-defined or too tightly prescribed it will have a detrimental effect on decision making.
(1861–1919), the father of planning and control techniques As a discipline, project management developed from several fields of application including civil construction, engineering, and heavy activity. Two forefathers of project management are, called the father of planning and control techniques, who is famous for his use of the as a project management tool (alternatively Harmonogram first proposed by ); and for his creation of the five management functions that form the foundation of the body of knowledge associated with project and program management. Both Gantt and Fayol were students of 's theories of. His work is the forerunner to modern project management tools including (WBS) and.
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The 1950s marked the beginning of the modern project management era where core engineering fields come together to work as one. Project management became recognized as a distinct discipline arising from the management discipline with engineering model. In the United States, prior to the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad-hoc basis, using mostly and informal techniques and tools. At that time, two mathematical models were developed.
The ' (CPM) was developed as a joint venture between and for managing plant maintenance projects. The ' (PERT), was developed by the in conjunction with the and as part of the submarine program. PERT and CPM are very similar in their approach but still present some differences.
CPM is used for projects that assume deterministic activity times; the times at which each activity will be carried out are known. PERT, on the other hand, allows for stochastic activity times; the times at which each activity will be carried out are uncertain or varied. Because of this core difference, CPM and PERT are used in different contexts. These mathematical techniques quickly spread into many private enterprises. For a seven-month project with five milestones At the same time, as project-scheduling models were being developed, technology for project cost, cost management and engineering economics was evolving, with pioneering work by Hans Lang and others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now; the Association for the Advancement of ) was formed by early practitioners of project management and the associated specialties of planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost/schedule control (project control).
AACE continued its pioneering work and in 2006 released the first integrated process for portfolio, program and project management ( framework). In 1969, the (PMI) was formed in the USA. PMI publishes (PMBOK Guide), which describes project management practices that are common to 'most projects, most of the time.' PMI also offers a range of certifications. Approaches There are a number of approaches to organizing and completing project activities, including: phased, lean, iterative, and incremental. There are also several extensions to project planning, for example based on outcomes (product-based) or activities (process-based).
A 2017 study suggested that the success of any project depends on how well four key aspects are aligned with the contextual dynamics affecting the project, these are referred to as the four P's:. Plan: The planning and forecasting activities. Process, the overall approach to all activities and project governance. People, and the dynamics of how they collaborate and communicate. Power, Projects are which describes all lines of authority, decision-makers, organograms, policies for implementation and the likes. Regardless of the employed, careful consideration must be given to the overall project objectives, timeline, and cost, as well as the roles and responsibilities of all participants and.
Phased approach The phased (or staged) approach breaks down and manages the work through a series of distinct steps to be completed, and is often referred to as 'traditional' or '. Although it can vary, it typically consists of five process areas, four phases plus control.
Typical development phases of an engineering project. and. construction. monitoring and controlling. completion or closing Many industries use variations of these project stages and it is not uncommon for the stages to be renamed in order to better suit the organization. For example, when working on a design and construction, projects will typically progress through stages like pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, design development, construction drawings (or contract documents), and construction administration. While the phased approach works well for small, well-defined projects, it often results in challenge or failure on larger projects, or those that are more complex or have more ambiguities, issues and risk.
Lean project management. See also: In critical studies of project management it has been noted that phased approaches are not well suited for projects which are large-scale and multi-company, with undefined, ambiguous, or fast-changing requirements, or those with high degrees of risk, dependency, and fast-changing technologies. The explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product. These complexities are better handled with a more exploratory or iterative and incremental approach.
Several models of iterative and incremental project management have evolved, including, and Innovation Engineering®. Critical chain project management. Main article: Critical chain project management (CCPM) is an application of the (TOC) to planning and managing projects, and is designed to deal with the uncertainties inherent in managing projects, while taking into consideration limited availability of (physical, human skills, as well as management & support capacity) needed to execute projects. The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization.
Applying the first three of the of TOC, the system constraint for all projects, as well as the resources, are identified. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities.
Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the resources are ready when the critical chain tasks must start, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain. Product-based planning. Main article: The incorporation of process-based management has been driven by the use of maturity models such as the and the (capability maturity model integration; see of a predecessor) and (SPICE – software process improvement and capability estimation). Unlike SEI's CMM, the OPM3 maturity model describes how to make project management processes capable of performing successfully, consistently, and predictably in order to enact the strategies of an organization. Project production management. Main article: Benefits realization management (BRM) enhances normal project management techniques through a focus on outcomes (benefits) of a project rather than products or outputs, and then measuring the degree to which that is happening to keep a project on track. This can help to reduce the risk of a completed project being a failure by delivering agreed upon requirements/outputs but failing to deliver the benefits of those requirements.
In addition, BRM practices aim to ensure the alignment between project outcomes and business strategies. The effectiveness of these practices is supported by recent research evidencing BRM practices influencing project success from a strategic perspective across different countries and industries.
An example of delivering a project to requirements might be agreeing to deliver a computer system that will process staff data and manage payroll, holiday and staff personnel records. Under BRM the agreement might be to achieve a specified reduction in staff hours required to process and maintain staff data. Earned value management. The project development stages Traditionally (depending on what project management methodology is being used), project management includes a number of elements: four to five project management process groups, and a control system. Regardless of the methodology or terminology used, the same basic project management processes or stages of development will be used. Major process groups generally include:. Initiation.
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Planning. Production or execution. Monitoring and controlling. Closing In project environments with a significant exploratory element (e.g., ), these stages may be supplemented with decision points (go/no go decisions) at which the project's continuation is debated and decided.
An example is the. Initiating. Initiating process group processes The initiating processes determine the nature and scope of the project. If this stage is not performed well, it is unlikely that the project will be successful in meeting the business’ needs. The key project controls needed here are an understanding of the business environment and making sure that all necessary controls are incorporated into the project. Any deficiencies should be reported and a recommendation should be made to fix them. The initiating stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas.
These areas can be recorded in a series of documents called Project Initiation documents. Project Initiation documents are a series of planned documents used to create order for the duration of the project.
Executing process group processes While executing we must know what are the planned terms that need to be executed. The execution/implementation phase ensures that the project management plan's deliverables are executed accordingly. This phase involves proper allocation, co-ordination and management of human resources and any other resources such as material and budgets. The output of this phase is the project deliverables. Project Documentation Documenting everything within a project is key to being successful. In order to maintain budget, scope, effectiveness and pace a project must have physical documents pertaining to each specific task. With correct documentation, it is easy to see whether or not a project's requirement has been met.
To go along with that, documentation provides information regarding what has already been completed for that project. Documentation throughout a project provides a paper trail for anyone who needs to go back and reference the work in the past. In most cases, documentation is the most successful way to monitor and control the specific phases of a project. With the correct documentation, a project's success can be tracked and observed as the project goes on.
If performed correctly documentation can be the backbone to a project's success. Monitoring and controlling. Monitoring and controlling process group processes Monitoring and controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.
Monitoring and controlling includes:. Measuring the ongoing project activities ('where we are');. Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline ( where we should be);. Identifying corrective actions to address issues and risks properly ( How can we get on track again);.
Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented. In multi-phase projects, the monitoring and control process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan. Project maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:. Continuing support of end-users. Correction of errors. Updates to the product over time.
Monitoring and controlling cycle In this stage, should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved. Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as change management.
Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, 'as built.' The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts. Construction document management is a highly important task undertaken with the aid an online or desktop software system, or maintained through physical documentation. The increasing legality pertaining to the construction industry's maintenance of correct documentation has caused the increase in the need for document management systems. When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed.
It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project.
Successful project management identifies these components, and tracks and monitors progress so as to stay within time and budget frames already outlined at the commencement of the project. Closing process group processes. Closing includes the formal acceptance of the project and the ending thereof.
Administrative activities include the archiving of the files and documenting lessons learned. This phase consists of:. Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase. Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase Also included in this phase is the Post Implementation Review. This is a vital phase of the project for the project team to learn from experiences and apply to future projects. Normally a Post Implementation Review consists of looking at things that went well and analyzing things that went badly on the project to come up with lessons learned. Project controlling and project control systems Project controlling (also known as ) should be established as an independent function in project management.
It implements verification and controlling function during the processing of a project in order to reinforce the defined performance and formal goals. An example of the Risk Register that includes 4 steps: Identify, Analyze, Plan Response, Monitor and Control. The United States Department of Defense states; 'Cost, Schedule, Performance, and Risk,' are the four elements through which Department of Defense acquisition professionals make trade-offs and track program status. There are also. Risk management applies proactive identification (see ) of future problems and understanding of their consequences allowing decisions about projects. Work breakdown structure. Main article: The (WBS) is a that shows a subdivision of the activities required to achieve an objective—for example a program, project, and contract.
The WBS may be hardware-, product-, service-, or -oriented (see an example in a ). A WBS can be developed by starting with the end objective and successively subdividing it into manageable components in terms of size, and responsibility (e.g., systems, subsystems, components, tasks, sub-tasks, and work packages), which include all steps necessary to achieve the objective. The work breakdown structure provides a common framework for the natural development of the overall planning and control of a contract and is the basis for dividing work into definable increments from which the statement of work can be developed and technical, schedule, cost, and labor hour reporting can be established. The work breakdown structure can be displayed in two forms, as a table with subdivision of tasks or as an organisational chart whose lowest nodes are referred to as 'work packages'. It is an essential element in assessing the quality of a plan, and an initial element used during the planning of the project. For example, a WBS is used when the project is scheduled, so that the use of work packages can be recorded and tracked. International standards There have been several attempts to develop project management standards, such as:.:2012 – Guidance on project management.
This is the first project management ISO.:2009 – Risk management. Risk management is 1 of the 10 knowledge areas of either ISO 21500 or PMBoK5 concept of project management. ISO/IEC/IEEE – Systems and Software Engineering—Life Cycle Processes—Project Management. from the. GAPPS, – an open source standard describing COMPETENCIES for project and program managers. from the (PMI)., Swiss general project management method, selected for use in Luxembourg and international organizations.
The ISO standards, a family of standards for quality management systems, and the:2003, for Quality management systems and guidelines for quality management in projects. (Projects in Controlled Environments). Body of Knowledge. (TSP) from the. Framework, AACE International's Methodology for Integrated Portfolio, Program and Project Management., an original systems development method. The, which is popular in international development organizations.
(AIPM) has 4 levels of certification; CPPP, CPPM, CPPD & CPPE for Certified Practicing Project. Partner, Manager, Director and Executive. Project portfolio management.
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